The CIA, or Central Intelligence Agency, was created to address critical intelligence needs and safeguard national security. WHY.EDU.VN offers a detailed explanation of the circumstances leading to its establishment, providing a clear understanding of its mission and evolution. Exploring the CIA’s formation uncovers layers of intelligence reform, geopolitical strategies, and covert operations.
1. What Led To The Creation Of The CIA?
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created primarily due to the lessons learned during World War II and the emerging Cold War. The need for coordinated intelligence gathering and analysis became evident, leading to the establishment of the CIA to safeguard U.S. national security interests globally.
To further elaborate, several pivotal factors contributed to the CIA’s inception:
- Post-World War II Realignment: After World War II, President Harry S. Truman recognized the necessity of a unified, strategically oriented intelligence service. The dissolution of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) left a void, prompting the creation of the Strategic Services Unit (SSU) as a temporary measure.
- The National Security Act of 1947: This landmark legislation formalized the establishment of the CIA, assigning it the critical role of coordinating the nation’s intelligence activities. It charged the agency with the collection, evaluation, and dissemination of intelligence affecting national security.
- Early Intelligence Coordination Efforts: Prior to the CIA, intelligence collection was fragmented among various departments, including the State Department, the FBI, and the armed services. The Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI), led by William “Wild Bill” Donovan, was established to address this lack of coordination.
- The Central Intelligence Group (CIG): As an interim step, the Central Intelligence Group was created to consolidate intelligence duties. President Truman appointed Rear Admiral Sidney Souers as the first Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). However, the CIG faced limitations due to its dependence on the Department of State and armed services.
- Cold War Pressures: The escalating tensions of the Cold War emphasized the urgency of having a centralized intelligence agency capable of understanding and responding to global threats. The CIA was designed to provide strategic insights and carry out covert operations to protect U.S. interests.
The CIA’s establishment marked a significant shift in U.S. intelligence strategy, consolidating efforts and resources to address both immediate and long-term national security challenges. The agency’s early years were characterized by rapid growth and the development of key capabilities in political action and paramilitary warfare. Today, the CIA continues to adapt to evolving global threats, leveraging its expertise to safeguard U.S. interests around the world.
2. How Did World War II Influence The Creation Of The CIA?
World War II profoundly influenced the creation of the CIA by highlighting the critical need for coordinated, centralized intelligence. The fragmented intelligence efforts before and during the war revealed significant vulnerabilities, leading to reforms that shaped the CIA’s structure and mission.
Key influences from World War II include:
- Decentralized Intelligence Efforts: Prior to World War II, U.S. intelligence activities were spread across multiple agencies with little coordination. The Department of State, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the U.S. Armed Services each collected intelligence independently, resulting in inefficiencies and gaps.
- The Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI): Recognizing the need for better coordination, President Franklin D. Roosevelt established the COI in 1941, led by William “Wild Bill” Donovan. The COI aimed to gather foreign intelligence related to the war, marking an initial step toward centralization.
- The Office of Strategic Services (OSS): In 1942, the COI was transformed into the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the first centralized intelligence agency in American history. The OSS, also led by Donovan, collected and analyzed strategic information and conducted unconventional operations.
- Lessons in Covert Operations: The OSS demonstrated the value of covert operations and strategic intelligence during wartime. Its success in gathering critical information and conducting clandestine activities provided a blueprint for future intelligence agencies.
- Post-War Assessment: After World War II, President Harry S. Truman recognized the need for a permanent, non-departmental intelligence service. The dissolution of the OSS led to the creation of the Strategic Services Unit (SSU) and, eventually, the Central Intelligence Group (CIG).
- Formal Establishment of the CIA: The National Security Act of 1947 formally established the CIA, charging it with coordinating national intelligence activities. The act aimed to create a more efficient and effective intelligence apparatus based on the lessons learned from the war.
Organization chart of the OSS.
The experiences of World War II underscored the importance of strategic intelligence and covert operations, directly influencing the structure and mission of the CIA. The agency was designed to address the shortcomings of pre-war intelligence efforts, ensuring a more coordinated and effective approach to national security.
3. What Were The Initial Goals Of The CIA When It Was Created?
When the CIA was created in 1947, its initial goals were to coordinate the nation’s intelligence activities, collect and analyze intelligence, and disseminate information affecting national security. These objectives were outlined in the National Security Act of 1947, which established the agency.
The specific aims included:
- Intelligence Coordination: To serve as a central hub for coordinating intelligence activities across various government agencies.
- Information Collection: To gather intelligence through overt and covert means, focusing on foreign governments, corporations, and individuals.
- Intelligence Analysis: To evaluate and analyze collected intelligence to provide timely and accurate assessments to policymakers.
- Dissemination of Intelligence: To distribute intelligence reports and analyses to relevant government officials, including the President and national security advisors.
- Covert Operations: To conduct secret operations as directed by the President to advance U.S. foreign policy objectives.
- National Security: To protect U.S. national security interests by identifying and countering threats.
- Strategic Planning: To contribute to strategic planning by providing insights into global trends and potential crises.
- Counterintelligence: To conduct activities to protect U.S. intelligence assets and operations from foreign intelligence services.
- Technological Advancement: To develop and utilize advanced technologies for intelligence collection and analysis.
- Personnel Development: To recruit and train highly skilled intelligence professionals.
Initially, the CIA focused on understanding and responding to the challenges posed by the Soviet Union and the spread of communism during the Cold War. The agency’s activities included espionage, counterintelligence, and covert operations aimed at containing Soviet influence.
The CIA’s role has evolved over time, but its core mission remains the same: to provide timely and accurate intelligence to U.S. policymakers to protect national security interests. Today, the agency continues to adapt to new threats, including terrorism, cyber warfare, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
4. How Did The Cold War Affect The CIA’s Development?
The Cold War profoundly shaped the CIA’s development, driving its expansion, activities, and overall mission. The geopolitical tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union necessitated a robust intelligence apparatus, and the CIA emerged as a central player in this global struggle.
Here are key ways the Cold War impacted the CIA:
- Increased Funding and Resources: The Cold War led to a significant increase in funding and resources for the CIA. The U.S. government recognized the need for a strong intelligence capability to counter Soviet influence, resulting in substantial financial support for the agency.
- Expansion of Covert Operations: The Cold War saw a dramatic expansion of the CIA’s covert operations. These secret missions aimed to undermine Soviet interests, support anti-communist movements, and influence political outcomes in various countries.
- Focus on Espionage and Counterintelligence: Espionage and counterintelligence became central activities for the CIA during the Cold War. The agency worked to gather intelligence on Soviet military capabilities, political intentions, and technological advancements while also protecting U.S. secrets from Soviet spies.
- Technological Advancements: The Cold War spurred technological advancements within the CIA. The agency invested in developing sophisticated surveillance technologies, including spy satellites, advanced communication systems, and innovative methods for intelligence collection.
- Global Expansion: The CIA expanded its global presence during the Cold War, establishing stations and networks in strategic locations around the world. This expansion allowed the agency to monitor Soviet activities, recruit foreign agents, and conduct operations in key regions.
- Proxy Wars and Conflicts: The Cold War fueled proxy wars and conflicts in various parts of the world, and the CIA played a significant role in these conflicts. The agency supported anti-communist forces in countries such as Vietnam, Korea, and Afghanistan, often through covert means.
- Political Influence: The CIA’s activities during the Cold War had a profound impact on global politics. The agency’s covert operations influenced elections, supported coups, and shaped political outcomes in numerous countries, often with long-lasting consequences.
- Training and Recruitment: The Cold War led to the development of specialized training programs and recruitment strategies within the CIA. The agency sought to attract highly skilled individuals with expertise in languages, cultures, and intelligence tradecraft.
The Cold War era defined much of the CIA’s identity and operational methods. The agency’s role in countering Soviet influence and protecting U.S. interests during this period solidified its importance in the national security apparatus. The lessons learned and capabilities developed during the Cold War continue to shape the CIA’s activities in the 21st century.
5. Who Was The First Director Of The CIA And What Were His Priorities?
The first Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter. Appointed by President Harry S. Truman in 1947, Hillenkoetter’s priorities were to establish the newly formed agency, coordinate intelligence activities, and provide timely and accurate information to policymakers.
Key priorities included:
- Establishing the Agency: Hillenkoetter’s primary task was to build the CIA from the ground up. This involved setting up organizational structures, recruiting personnel, and defining the agency’s mission within the broader national security framework.
- Intelligence Coordination: He focused on coordinating intelligence activities among various government agencies. The National Security Act of 1947 charged the CIA with this responsibility, aiming to streamline intelligence efforts and avoid the fragmentation that had plagued pre-CIA operations.
- Information Collection and Analysis: Hillenkoetter emphasized the collection and analysis of intelligence to provide accurate and timely information to policymakers. This involved developing methods for gathering intelligence through both overt and covert means, as well as establishing analytical capabilities to assess the information.
- Countering Soviet Influence: Given the onset of the Cold War, a major priority was to counter Soviet influence and the spread of communism. The CIA focused on gathering intelligence on Soviet activities, intentions, and capabilities.
- Covert Operations: Hillenkoetter oversaw the initial development of the CIA’s covert operations capabilities. These secret operations were designed to advance U.S. foreign policy objectives and counter Soviet actions without direct military involvement.
- Building Relationships: He worked to build relationships with other government agencies, including the State Department, the military, and the FBI. Effective cooperation and information sharing were crucial to the CIA’s success.
- Developing Infrastructure: Hillenkoetter focused on developing the infrastructure necessary to support the CIA’s operations. This included establishing secure communications networks, developing training programs for personnel, and acquiring facilities for intelligence activities.
- Maintaining Secrecy: Maintaining secrecy was a key concern. Hillenkoetter implemented procedures to protect sensitive information and operations from being compromised.
- Advising Policymakers: He served as an advisor to President Truman and other policymakers on intelligence matters. Providing accurate and insightful intelligence assessments was essential to informing national security decisions.
Roscoe Hillenkoetter, the first Director of the newly created Central Intelligence Agency.
Hillenkoetter’s tenure as the first Director of the CIA laid the foundation for the agency’s future development and role in U.S. national security. His efforts to establish the CIA as a central intelligence hub and to counter Soviet influence were critical during the early years of the Cold War.
6. How Did The CIA’s Mission Evolve Over The Years?
The CIA’s mission has evolved significantly since its creation in 1947, adapting to changing geopolitical landscapes and emerging threats. Initially focused on countering Soviet influence during the Cold War, the agency has broadened its scope to address terrorism, cyber warfare, and other global challenges.
Here’s how the CIA’s mission has evolved:
- Cold War Focus (1947-1991):
- Primary Mission: Countering the Soviet Union and the spread of communism.
- Activities: Espionage, counterintelligence, covert operations, and supporting anti-communist movements.
- Key Events: Involvement in proxy wars, such as the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and covert operations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
- Post-Cold War Era (1991-2001):
- Shift in Focus: Adapting to a new world order with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
- Activities: Addressing regional conflicts, nuclear proliferation, and emerging threats such as international terrorism and drug trafficking.
- Key Events: Involvement in the Balkan conflicts, efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation in North Korea and Iran, and initial responses to the growing threat of al-Qaeda.
- Post-9/11 Era (2001-Present):
- Counterterrorism Focus: Combating international terrorism, particularly al-Qaeda and ISIS.
- Activities: Enhanced intelligence gathering, targeted killings, and working with international partners to disrupt terrorist networks.
- Key Events: Involvement in the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the use of drones for targeted killings, and the development of new surveillance technologies.
- Emerging Challenges (Present):
- Cyber Warfare: Protecting U.S. interests in the digital realm and countering cyber threats from state and non-state actors.
- Great Power Competition: Addressing challenges posed by China and Russia, including economic espionage, military modernization, and geopolitical influence.
- Climate Change: Assessing the impact of climate change on national security and providing intelligence to policymakers.
- Pandemics: Monitoring and assessing global health threats, such as pandemics, and providing intelligence to inform public health responses.
Over the years, the CIA has also faced increased scrutiny and oversight, leading to reforms aimed at enhancing transparency and accountability. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 created the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) to oversee the entire U.S. Intelligence Community, including the CIA.
Today, the CIA continues to adapt to an ever-changing global landscape, leveraging its expertise to address a wide range of threats to U.S. national security. The agency’s mission remains focused on providing timely and accurate intelligence to policymakers, conducting covert operations when necessary, and protecting U.S. interests around the world.
7. What Are Some Notable Successes And Controversies In The CIA’s History?
The CIA has been involved in numerous operations that have had significant impacts on global events. However, the agency has also faced considerable criticism and controversy over its methods and actions.
Notable Successes:
- Countering Soviet Influence During the Cold War: The CIA played a key role in gathering intelligence on Soviet activities, supporting anti-communist movements, and preventing the spread of communism.
- Operation Cyclone: The CIA’s support for the Mujahideen in Afghanistan during the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s is credited with helping to drive the Soviet Union out of Afghanistan.
- Finding Osama bin Laden: The CIA played a crucial role in the intelligence gathering and analysis that led to the discovery and killing of Osama bin Laden in 2011.
- Cuban Missile Crisis: The CIA provided critical intelligence on the Soviet placement of nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962, which allowed President John F. Kennedy to respond effectively and avert a potential nuclear war.
- Technological Innovations: The CIA has been at the forefront of developing advanced surveillance technologies, including spy satellites and communication systems, which have enhanced intelligence gathering capabilities.
Notable Controversies:
- Involvement in Coups and Regime Change: The CIA has been accused of involvement in coups and regime change operations in various countries, including Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), and Chile (1973). These operations have been criticized for undermining democracy and destabilizing regions.
- MKUltra Program: The MKUltra program was a series of secret experiments conducted by the CIA from the 1950s to the 1970s. These experiments involved the use of drugs and other techniques to manipulate human behavior, often without the knowledge or consent of the subjects.
- Waterboarding and Enhanced Interrogation Techniques: Following the 9/11 attacks, the CIA used waterboarding and other enhanced interrogation techniques on suspected terrorists. These techniques have been widely condemned as torture and a violation of human rights.
- Iran-Contra Affair: The Iran-Contra affair in the 1980s involved the secret sale of arms to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages, with the proceeds being used to fund the Contras in Nicaragua. The affair led to a major political scandal and raised questions about the CIA’s accountability.
- Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp: The CIA has been involved in the operation of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, where suspected terrorists have been held without trial. The camp has been criticized for human rights abuses and violations of international law.
The CIA’s history is marked by both successes and controversies. While the agency has played a critical role in protecting U.S. national security, its actions have also raised ethical and legal concerns. These controversies have led to increased scrutiny and oversight of the CIA, as well as reforms aimed at enhancing transparency and accountability.
8. How Does The CIA Operate Today?
Today, the CIA operates under the oversight of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) and is primarily responsible for gathering, analyzing, and disseminating foreign intelligence to U.S. policymakers. The agency’s activities are divided into several key areas.
Key Operational Areas:
- Intelligence Collection:
- Human Intelligence (HUMINT): Gathering intelligence through human sources, including spies, informants, and foreign contacts.
- Signals Intelligence (SIGINT): Collecting intelligence from electronic signals, such as communications and radar systems.
- Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT): Gathering intelligence from publicly available sources, such as news media, academic publications, and online databases.
- Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT): Collecting and analyzing imagery and geospatial data to provide intelligence on locations, activities, and infrastructure.
- Intelligence Analysis:
- Analyzing Collected Data: Evaluating and interpreting collected intelligence to provide timely and accurate assessments to policymakers.
- Producing Reports and Briefings: Preparing intelligence reports and briefings for the President, national security advisors, and other government officials.
- Identifying Threats and Trends: Identifying emerging threats and trends that could impact U.S. national security.
- Covert Operations:
- Conducting Secret Missions: Carrying out secret operations as directed by the President to advance U.S. foreign policy objectives.
- Undermining Adversaries: Disrupting and undermining the activities of adversaries, such as terrorist groups and hostile governments.
- Supporting Allies: Providing support to allies and partners in pursuit of shared objectives.
- Counterintelligence:
- Protecting U.S. Intelligence Assets: Protecting U.S. intelligence assets and operations from foreign intelligence services.
- Identifying and Neutralizing Threats: Identifying and neutralizing threats from foreign spies and saboteurs.
- Securing Information: Ensuring the security of classified information and preventing leaks.
- Cyber Operations:
- Protecting U.S. Networks: Protecting U.S. government and critical infrastructure networks from cyber attacks.
- Conducting Offensive Cyber Operations: Conducting offensive cyber operations to disrupt and degrade the capabilities of adversaries.
- Gathering Cyber Intelligence: Gathering intelligence on cyber threats and vulnerabilities.
The CIA works closely with other members of the U.S. Intelligence Community, including the National Security Agency (NSA), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The agency also maintains relationships with foreign intelligence services to share information and coordinate efforts.
The CIA is subject to oversight by Congress, which has the authority to review the agency’s activities and budget. The agency is also subject to legal and ethical constraints, which are designed to protect civil liberties and ensure accountability.
Today, the CIA continues to adapt to new threats and challenges, leveraging its expertise to protect U.S. national security interests around the world. The agency’s mission remains focused on providing timely and accurate intelligence to policymakers, conducting covert operations when necessary, and working with partners to address global threats.
9. What Are The Ethical Considerations Surrounding The CIA’s Activities?
The CIA’s activities often involve complex ethical considerations due to the nature of intelligence gathering, covert operations, and the potential impact on individuals and nations. These considerations are crucial in balancing national security interests with moral and legal obligations.
Key Ethical Considerations:
- Use of Force: The CIA’s involvement in targeted killings, drone strikes, and other uses of force raises questions about the legality and morality of such actions. Critics argue that these operations can violate international law and human rights, while proponents argue that they are necessary to protect U.S. national security.
- Intervention in Foreign Affairs: The CIA’s involvement in coups, regime change operations, and other forms of intervention in foreign affairs raises concerns about sovereignty, democracy, and the potential for destabilizing regions.
- Human Rights: The CIA’s use of interrogation techniques, such as waterboarding, and its involvement in detention facilities, such as Guantanamo Bay, have been criticized for violating human rights and international law.
- Privacy: The CIA’s surveillance activities, including the collection of electronic communications and personal data, raise concerns about privacy and civil liberties. Balancing the need for intelligence gathering with the protection of individual privacy rights is a major challenge.
- Deception and Manipulation: The CIA’s use of deception and manipulation in intelligence gathering and covert operations raises ethical questions about the integrity of government and the potential for undermining trust.
- Accountability and Transparency: The CIA’s activities are often shrouded in secrecy, which can make it difficult to hold the agency accountable for its actions. Balancing the need for secrecy with the principles of transparency and accountability is essential.
- Collateral Damage: The CIA’s operations can result in unintended harm to civilians and other non-combatants. Minimizing collateral damage and ensuring that operations are conducted in accordance with the laws of war are critical ethical considerations.
- Whistleblowing: Individuals who disclose classified information about the CIA’s activities, known as whistleblowers, often face legal and ethical dilemmas. Balancing the duty to protect classified information with the right to expose wrongdoing is a complex issue.
To address these ethical considerations, the CIA is subject to legal and ethical constraints, as well as oversight by Congress and the executive branch. The agency also has internal mechanisms for reviewing and addressing ethical concerns. However, the ethical dilemmas surrounding the CIA’s activities remain a subject of ongoing debate and discussion.
10. What Are Some Books And Movies That Offer Insights Into The CIA’s History And Operations?
Numerous books and movies offer insights into the CIA’s history, operations, and ethical dilemmas. These resources provide diverse perspectives, ranging from historical accounts to fictionalized portrayals.
Books:
- Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA by Tim Weiner: A comprehensive history of the CIA, based on thousands of documents and interviews.
- All the President’s Men by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward: A non-fiction account of the Watergate scandal, which involved the CIA’s activities.
- Charlie Wilson’s War: The Extraordinary Story of How the Wildest Man in Congress and a Rogue CIA Agent Changed the History of Our Times by George Crile III: A true story about a U.S. Congressman and a CIA agent who worked together to support the Mujahideen in Afghanistan during the Soviet-Afghan War.
- American Assassin by Vince Flynn: A fictional thriller about a CIA operative who hunts down terrorists.
- The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 by Lawrence Wright: An in-depth account of the rise of al-Qaeda, which includes information about the CIA’s efforts to counter the terrorist group.
- Directorate S by Steve Coll: Coll uses his extraordinary reporting skills to give us an inside account of the CIA’s secret wars in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
- Kill Chain by Andrew Cockburn: Is a hair-raising exposé of the disastrous consequences of America’s infatuation with technological warfare.
Movies:
- Zero Dark Thirty (2012): A film about the CIA’s hunt for Osama bin Laden.
- Argo (2012): A film about a CIA operative who leads a rescue mission to extract American diplomats from Iran during the Iranian hostage crisis.
- The Good Shepherd (2006): A fictionalized account of the early years of the CIA, focusing on the life of one of its founding members.
- Syriana (2005): A political thriller that explores the complex relationships between the U.S. government, the oil industry, and the CIA in the Middle East.
- All the President’s Men (1976): A film adaptation of the book by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, about the Watergate scandal.
- Charlie Wilson’s War (2007): A film adaptation of the book by George Crile III, about the U.S. support for the Mujahideen in Afghanistan.
- The Bourne Identity (2002): A fictional thriller about a CIA operative with amnesia who tries to uncover his past.
These books and movies offer a range of perspectives on the CIA, from historical accounts to fictionalized portrayals. They can provide valuable insights into the agency’s history, operations, and ethical dilemmas.
General William “Wild Bill” Donovan, the “father of American intelligence” and head of the Office of Strategic Services.
Understanding why the CIA was created is essential for grasping its role in shaping global events. The agency’s mission has evolved significantly since its inception, adapting to changing geopolitical landscapes and emerging threats.
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FAQ About The CIA
1. What is the main purpose of the CIA?
The main purpose of the CIA is to gather, analyze, and disseminate foreign intelligence to U.S. policymakers to protect national security interests. The CIA also conducts covert operations as directed by the President.
2. When was the CIA established?
The CIA was formally established on September 18, 1947, with the signing of the National Security Act of 1947 by President Harry S. Truman.
3. Who oversees the CIA?
The CIA is overseen by the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), who is responsible for coordinating the entire U.S. Intelligence Community. The CIA Director manages the agency’s day-to-day operations.
4. What is the difference between the CIA and the FBI?
The CIA primarily focuses on foreign intelligence gathering, while the FBI is responsible for domestic intelligence and law enforcement. The CIA operates outside the U.S., while the FBI operates within the U.S.
5. What types of intelligence does the CIA collect?
The CIA collects various types of intelligence, including human intelligence (HUMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), open-source intelligence (OSINT), and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT).
6. What are covert operations?
Covert operations are secret missions conducted by the CIA, as directed by the President, to advance U.S. foreign policy objectives. These operations can include political action, paramilitary activities, and psychological warfare.
7. How does the CIA ensure accountability?
The CIA is subject to oversight by Congress, which has the authority to review the agency’s activities and budget. The agency is also subject to legal and ethical constraints, as well as internal mechanisms for reviewing and addressing ethical concerns.
8. What is the role of the CIA in counterterrorism?
The CIA plays a key role in counterterrorism by gathering intelligence on terrorist groups, disrupting terrorist networks, and working with international partners to prevent terrorist attacks.
9. What are the ethical considerations surrounding the CIA’s activities?
The ethical considerations surrounding the CIA’s activities include the use of force, intervention in foreign affairs, human rights, privacy, deception, accountability, and collateral damage.
10. How has the CIA’s mission changed over time?
The CIA’s mission has evolved from primarily countering Soviet influence during the Cold War to addressing a broader range of threats, including terrorism, cyber warfare, and nuclear proliferation.
