The ongoing dispute between Israel and the Palestinians stands as one of the world’s most enduring and violent conflicts, tracing its roots back over a century. This protracted struggle has been marked by numerous wars between Israel and neighboring Arab nations, Palestinian uprisings against Israeli occupation, and retaliatory measures and stringent crackdowns by Israel.
The deep-seated conflict, fueled by historical disagreements over land, borders, and fundamental rights, continues to reverberate today, most notably in the recent war between Israel and Hamas in Gaza. To understand the complexities of the current situation, it is crucial to delve into the historical context that has shaped this enduring conflict.
The Genesis of Israel: Palestine Before 1948
Prior to 1948, the region known as Palestine was under British control, acquired after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War One. This land was home to a diverse population, with an Arab majority and a Jewish minority, alongside other ethnic groups.
Tensions between the Jewish and Arab communities escalated following the UK’s agreement in principle to establish a “national home” for Jewish people in Palestine – a commitment formalized in the Balfour Declaration. While Jews held historical connections to the land, Palestinian Arabs also asserted their ancestral claims spanning centuries and vehemently opposed the move. The British administration, in a precarious balancing act, declared that the rights of the existing Palestinian Arab population must be safeguarded.
Between the 1920s and 1940s, Jewish immigration to Palestine surged, driven by escalating persecution in Europe. The Holocaust, which resulted in the systematic murder of six million Jews, amplified the urgency for a secure haven. By 1947, the Jewish population in Palestine had grown to approximately 630,000, constituting just over 30% of the total population.
In 1947, amidst mounting violence between Jewish and Arab communities and growing unrest against British rule, the United Nations (UN) proposed a partition plan to divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem designated as an international city. This plan was rejected by Arab nations, who argued that it disproportionately favored the Jewish population by allocating them more land despite their smaller demographic size. Britain abstained from the vote and announced its withdrawal, effectively passing the responsibility to the UN, set for May 14, 1948.
On the eve of the British withdrawal, Jewish leaders in Palestine declared the establishment of an independent state of Israel. The newly formed nation gained UN recognition the following year.
The 1948 Arab-Israeli War: Israel’s War of Independence and the Nakba
The day following Israel’s declaration of independence, the armies of five Arab nations launched a coordinated attack, engulfing the nascent state in war. In Israel, this conflict is remembered as its War of Independence.
By the time an armistice was reached in 1949, Israel had expanded its control over a significant portion of the territory. The armistice agreements left the Gaza Strip under Egyptian control, the West Bank and East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule, and West Jerusalem under Israeli control.
This war resulted in a mass displacement of approximately 750,000 Palestinians who were forced to flee or were expelled from their homes in what became Israel, becoming refugees. This event is known in Arabic as the Nakba, meaning “the Catastrophe.”
In the subsequent years, a reverse migration occurred as hundreds of thousands of Jews were displaced or expelled from Muslim-majority countries across the Middle East and North Africa, with many seeking refuge in Israel.
The Six-Day War of 1967: A Turning Point
The Six-Day War of 1967 dramatically reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East and had profound consequences for Palestinians. This war pitted Israel against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan.
Triggered by Israel’s preemptive strike on Egypt’s air force in response to perceived threats from Egypt and Syria, the war resulted in Israel’s swift victory and territorial expansion. By the end of the six days of fighting, Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the Golan Heights from Syria, and East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan.
This swift military victory brought approximately one million Palestinians in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem under Israeli control, marking the beginning of a prolonged occupation.
Israel’s occupation of these territories persists to this day, despite international condemnation and numerous UN resolutions. While Israel signed a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979 and withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, it annexed East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, incorporating them into Israel. These annexations, however, remain unrecognized by most of the international community.
The West Bank: Occupation and Settlements
The West Bank, situated between Israel and the Jordan River, is currently home to an estimated three million Palestinians. Together with East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip, it constitutes what are widely referred to as the Occupied Palestinian Territories.
Palestinians vehemently oppose Israel’s presence in these areas and aspire to establish an independent state encompassing these territories, a position supported by the overwhelming majority of the international community.
While Israel maintains overall control of the West Bank, the Palestinian Authority, established in the 1990s, exercises limited governance over Palestinian towns and cities within the territory.
Adding to the complexity of the situation are approximately 150 Israeli settlements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem, housing around 700,000 Jewish settlers. Palestinians demand the complete dismantling of these settlements, which are considered illegal under international law.
However, the Israeli government disputes this legal interpretation, asserting historical rights and the permanence of at least the major settlement blocs. Furthermore, Israel does not recognize Palestinian rights to statehood and views the West Bank as part of its historical homeland.
The Israeli government’s 2022 announcement of further settlement expansion plans and its explicit rejection of a Palestinian state, citing security concerns, underscore the deep divisions and obstacles to a peaceful resolution. In a significant legal pronouncement in July 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the UN’s highest court, declared Israel’s continued presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territories as illegal, urging Israel to withdraw all settlers and citing breaches of international agreements on racism and apartheid.
Jerusalem: A City Divided
Both Israel and the Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, making the city a central point of contention in the conflict.
Israel, which already controlled West Jerusalem, occupied East Jerusalem in the 1967 war and subsequently declared the entire city its “eternal, undivided capital.” This claim is not internationally recognized.
Palestinians, on the other hand, envision East Jerusalem as the capital of their future Palestinian state. East Jerusalem’s population is predominantly Palestinian, with only a small fraction opting for Israeli citizenship.
Jerusalem’s holy sites are at the heart of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The most revered site, known to Muslims as Al-Aqsa Mosque compound or Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary) and to Jews as Temple Mount, is located in East Jerusalem.
The UN and the majority of international opinion regard East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory under Israeli occupation, further complicating the issue of sovereignty and control over the city.
Gaza Strip: Blockade and Conflict
The Gaza Strip, a narrow coastal territory bordered by Israel, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea, is a densely populated area, home to approximately 2.3 million people within its 41km (25 miles) length and 10km width.
Even before the recent escalation of conflict between Israel and Hamas, Gaza faced severe socio-economic challenges, including one of the world’s highest unemployment rates and widespread poverty, with a significant portion of the population reliant on food aid.
Gaza’s boundaries were established following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, after which it was occupied by Egypt. Israel occupied the Gaza Strip during the 1967 Six-Day War, establishing settlements and imposing military rule over the Palestinian population.
In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its troops and settlers from Gaza. However, it maintained control over Gaza’s borders, airspace, and coastline, effectively controlling the movement of people and goods in and out of the territory. The UN continues to classify Gaza as Israeli-occupied territory due to this ongoing control.
Following Hamas’s victory in the 2006 Palestinian elections and subsequent takeover of Gaza in 2007, Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade on the Gaza Strip. Israel tightly controls the flow of goods into Gaza, citing security concerns related to Hamas, which it considers a terrorist organization.
Since then, Hamas and Israel have engaged in multiple major armed conflicts, including in 2008-09, 2012, 2014, and 2021. Each conflict has resulted in casualties on both sides, predominantly among Palestinians in Gaza.
On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a large-scale attack from Gaza into Israel, resulting in the deaths of approximately 1,200 people in Israel and the abduction of over 250 hostages.
This attack triggered a large-scale Israeli military offensive in Gaza. According to the Hamas-run health ministry, over 46,700 people have been killed in Gaza, the majority of whom are women and children.
In January 2025, after 15 months of war, Israel and Hamas reached an agreement to halt the war and exchange Israeli hostages for Palestinian prisoners. However, the underlying issues fueling the conflict remain unresolved.
The Question of Palestinian Statehood
As of May 2024, 143 out of 193 United Nations General Assembly members have voted in favor of granting Palestine full UN membership, a status reserved for sovereign states. Currently recognized as the “State of Palestine” at the UN, it holds “Permanent Observer State” status, granting it participation rights but not voting rights in the General Assembly.
However, several countries, including some European nations and the United States, do not recognize a Palestinian state, conditioning recognition on a comprehensive political resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
In the UK, while Members of Parliament voted in favor of recognition in 2014, the government has not yet formally recognized a Palestinian state. The UK government’s stance, articulated in 2021, is that recognition will occur “at a time of our choosing, and when it best serves the objective of peace.”
Israel fundamentally opposes the establishment of an independent Palestinian state, citing historical claims to the West Bank and asserting that a Palestinian state would pose an unacceptable security risk.
Palestinian Refugees: The Right of Return
Approximately 5.9 million Palestinians are registered as refugees with the UN, primarily descendants of those who were displaced or expelled from their homes during the 1948-49 Arab-Israeli war and the subsequent creation of Israel.
These refugees primarily reside in Jordan, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Syria, and Lebanon, often in refugee camps.
Palestinians steadfastly advocate for the right of return for these refugees to their ancestral homes in what is now Israel. However, Israel has consistently rejected this demand, raising concerns about demographic implications and national security. Israel also criticizes the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) for extending refugee status to subsequent generations, perpetuating the refugee issue.
The Two-State Solution: A Diminishing Hope?
The “two-state solution” has long been the dominant international framework for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This approach envisions the creation of an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, with East Jerusalem as its capital, coexisting peacefully alongside Israel.
Despite decades of international efforts, the two-state solution faces significant obstacles and declining prospects. Israel currently rejects the two-state solution, arguing that any final settlement must be the outcome of direct negotiations with the Palestinians, without preconditions such as Palestinian statehood.
While the Palestinian Authority officially supports the two-state solution, Hamas, which governs Gaza, opposes the existence of Israel and, consequently, the two-state solution in its currently proposed form. Hamas has indicated a potential willingness to accept an interim Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders, without formally recognizing Israel, contingent upon the right of return for Palestinian refugees.
Previous attempts to resolve the conflict, such as the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993, initially offered a framework for peace negotiations. However, these talks ultimately collapsed, with each side blaming the other for the failure to achieve a lasting peace.
The path forward remains uncertain, with deep divisions and seemingly irreconcilable demands hindering progress towards a resolution to this protracted and deeply rooted conflict.
