In the decades after World War II, Jewish communities in America experienced unprecedented levels of acceptance and prosperity, a stark contrast to the historical persecution faced by their ancestors across the globe. However, a disturbing trend, initially observed in Western Europe, has seen antisemitism resurface in the United States with alarming intensity in recent years.
From horrific acts of violence, such as the Tree of Life synagogue shooting in Pittsburgh (2018), the Chabad Center attack in Poway (2019), and the Colleyville synagogue hostage crisis (2022), to the normalization of antisemitic tropes in mainstream culture, fueled by figures like rapper Kanye West, basketball player Kyrie Irving, and comedian Dave Chappelle, hatred against Jewish people is undeniably on the rise in America.
But what exactly is antisemitism? Why is it becoming increasingly prevalent today? And what are the underlying reasons for this deep-seated prejudice against Jews?
To shed light on this complex issue, we address ten critical questions about the hatred of Jewish people, exploring its origins, contemporary manifestations, and the intricate relationship between antisemitism and discussions about Israel.
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What Makes Antisemitism Distinct from Other Forms of Hatred?
Antisemitism stands out as the oldest form of hatred, with roots stretching back thousands of years to early Christian doctrines. Over centuries, it has evolved into various forms, both overt and subtle, yet consistently harmful to Jewish people. This adaptability is a key characteristic that distinguishes antisemitism. Unlike many forms of racism that demean victims as inferior, antisemitism often operates by portraying Jews as both weak and powerful, marginalized and controlling.
Alt text: Crowd at an anti-antisemitism rally in Washington D.C., holding signs and banners denouncing hate.
Antisemitism frequently relies on conspiracy theories, alleging that Jews secretly manipulate media, financial institutions, and governments. Derogatory stereotypes, such as myths of “Jewish power” or the “Jewish lobby,” are perpetuated to fuel these narratives. This type of antisemitism, which attacks Jews for perceived power, resonates particularly strongly within contemporary anti-racism discourse, ironically using the language of social justice to target Jewish people. While anti-racism aims to dismantle unjust power structures, antisemitism misrepresents Jewish people as being part of or even orchestrating these structures.
Both white supremacist and Black supremacist ideologies, including groups like the Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan, falsely accuse Jews of attempting to usurp their position as the superior group. White supremacists pose a particularly lethal threat, viewing Jews as a primary obstacle to their racist agenda. Black supremacists, such as the Black Hebrew Israelites, claim to be the true descendants of biblical Israelites, dismissing “White” Jews as imposters and falsely appropriating Jewish heritage. This distorted ideology was notably echoed in antisemitic statements made by rapper Kanye West, who asserted that Black people are the true Jews and descendants of the twelve tribes of Judah.
Another prevalent form of antisemitism involves portraying Jews as oppressors. Anti-Zionists often accuse Jews of ethnic cleansing for not allowing Palestinian refugees to return to Israel. They mischaracterize the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a racial conflict, rather than a complex geopolitical and nationalistic dispute. The language of anti-racism is often twisted by antisemites to mask their prejudice, denying self-determination and equal rights to Jewish people while claiming to champion other marginalized groups.
The unique denial of the Jewish people’s right to self-determination, or the erasure of their historical and religious connection to Israel, singles out Jews in a manner unlike any other form of discrimination, revealing the distinct nature of antisemitism.
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What Are the Historical Origins of Antisemitism?
Throughout history, antisemitism has manifested in diverse ways, consistently holding individual Jews accountable for the supposed wrongdoings of Jews as a collective. While anti-Jewish sentiments existed in the pre-Christian Greco-Roman world, the foundations of modern antisemitism are largely rooted in Christian theology, specifically interpretations of Christian doctrine and early Church Fathers’ teachings that fostered contempt for Jewish people. This included the damaging accusation of “deicide,” blaming Jews for the death of Jesus, a charge that held all Jews collectively responsible for this event.
Alt text: Medieval European illustration depicting the antisemitic blood libel accusation against Jewish people.
During the Medieval period, this religious-based discrimination evolved into scapegoating Jews for various societal misfortunes. Jews were falsely accused of kidnapping and murdering Christian children, a fabricated charge known as the “blood libel.” They were also blamed for spreading diseases, an accusation referred to as “poisoning the well.” As Jewish people began to integrate into European society and gain access to professions and public roles previously denied to them, conspiracy theories about Jewish power began to proliferate.
With the establishment of the State of Israel, antisemitism expanded to target the collective Jewish identity in the form of the Jewish state. Israel faces unique challenges to its survival and endures relentless demonization and delegitimization from various actors globally, a level of scrutiny unmatched by any other nation. Contemporary antisemitism draws from all these historical and evolving concepts, creating a multifaceted and persistent form of prejudice.
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How Has Antisemitism Changed and Adapted Over Time?
The stereotypes and conspiracy theories associated with antisemitism have constantly shifted and adapted throughout history, reflecting contemporary events and social contexts. As previously mentioned, early forms of anti-Jewish sentiment were rooted in religious doctrine, epitomized by the “deicide” charge. In the Middle Ages, Jews were subjected to the “blood libel” and accusations of “poisoning the well.” Later, with increased Jewish assimilation in Europe, conspiracies surrounding Jewish power emerged, notably through the fabricated “Protocols of the Elders of Zion.” This fraudulent document, falsely attributed to the Russian secret police in the early 20th century but still circulated today, has served as a key justification for antisemitism, alleging a secret Jewish plan for global domination.
Alt text: Cover of “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, a fabricated antisemitic text used to promote conspiracy theories.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, eugenics, a pseudo-scientific theory promoting a racial hierarchy and selective breeding, became central to Adolf Hitler’s Nazi ideology. This gave rise to racial antisemitism. Hitler’s hierarchy placed Aryans, supposedly of Nordic descent, at the top, and Jews, whom he blamed for Germany’s defeat in World War I, at the bottom. His “final solution” to the fabricated “Jewish problem” was the systematic genocide of six million Jews during the Holocaust.
The creation of Israel introduced another dimension of antisemitism, targeting the Jewish state itself. The denial of the Jewish people’s right to self-determination and the rejection of their historical and religious connection to Israel are forms of discrimination fueled by the same underlying motives that have driven antisemitism for millennia.
All these historical expressions of antisemitism persist today, found in societies with and without significant Jewish populations, online, in textbooks across parts of the Arab world, and increasingly within mainstream discourse. This ability to morph and reappear in different contexts is a defining characteristic of antisemitism.
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Does Antisemitism Originate from the Far-Right or the Far-Left?
Antisemitism is not confined to any single point on the political spectrum; it emerges from various sources across the ideological landscape. It is crucial to unequivocally condemn all forms of antisemitism, regardless of their origin, as they often reinforce each other, contributing to the current global surge in Jew-hatred.
A significant and deadly source is the far-right. White supremacists, driven by racist ideologies, view Jews as a primary enemy, falsely believing that Jews are attempting to displace the white race from a position of dominance. In fact, antisemitism is a core, enduring element of white supremacist worldviews.
The online manifesto of the perpetrator of the Pittsburgh Tree of Life synagogue shooting revealed that white supremacists consider Jews to be non-white, and therefore targets. This attack was the deadliest antisemitic act in American history. A similar attack narrowly failed in Halle, Germany, when a far-right gunman attempted to storm a synagogue during Yom Kippur services in 2019.
Paradoxically, antisemitism also manifests on the far-left. In the context of far-left movements aiming to dismantle perceived unjust power structures, Jews are sometimes targeted with antisemitic tropes alleging excessive Jewish power and privilege. This is often intertwined with criticisms of Israel, which can cross into antisemitism when it denies Israel’s right to exist or holds all Jews accountable for Israel’s actions.
Alt text: Protest signs at a pro-Palestinian rally, some displaying slogans that are considered antisemitic.
Within some European intellectual circles, antisemitism has resurfaced alongside anti-American sentiments, echoing historical patterns from the former Soviet Union, where Jews were falsely accused of supporting American imperialism. The Soviet Union spearheaded the infamous 1975 resolution equating Zionism with racism, relying on the fabricated “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” and distorting Jewish religious concepts to falsely claim that Judaism promotes racial superiority. This deliberate distortion misrepresented Judaism’s concept of “chosenness,” which in reality refers to a unique set of religious and ethical obligations, not racial supremacy.
The rise of identity politics has also contributed to antisemitism on the left. The adoption of an “us vs. them” mentality can create an environment where there is no room for nuanced debate or differing opinions, particularly on Israel. Consequently, individuals who express support for Zionism are increasingly excluded from progressive spaces advocating for social justice, even when the issues at hand are unrelated to Israel.
Far-left antisemitism frequently manifests as opposition to Israel’s right to exist or the collective blaming of all Jews for Israeli government policies. Antisemitic violence and rhetoric have erupted during some pro-Palestinian and anti-Israel protests. In the U.S. Congress, a vocal group of far-left Democrats has accused Israel of apartheid. U.S. Representative Ilhan Omar, for example, has made statements suggesting that “Israel has hypnotized the world” and accused politicians supporting Israel of dual loyalty, invoking a classic antisemitic trope.
In Britain, the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn was embroiled in a significant antisemitism scandal, demonstrating how anti-Zionist sentiment can create an environment where antisemitism is tolerated or even encouraged within political movements.
Religious extremism, including certain forms of Islamic extremism, also propagates antisemitism. Tragically, almost every fatal attack against Jews in Europe in recent years, with the exception of Halle, Germany, has been perpetrated by individuals claiming to act in the name of Islam. Religious extremism also fuels the goals of groups like Iran, Hezbollah, and Hamas, who openly seek the destruction of Israel, making the occasional alignment of far-left groups with these entities deeply concerning.
These diverse sources of antisemitism coexist and interact, creating a complex and challenging landscape in combating Jew-hatred.
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What is Philosemitism and Why Can It Be Problematic?
Philosemitism refers to a disproportionate interest in, respect for, or admiration of Jewish people, Jewish history, or even stereotypical views of Jewish people. While seemingly positive, philosemitism can also be problematic and even mask underlying prejudice. For example, a philosemite might express admiration for Jewish people based on stereotypes, such as believing they are inherently good with money or particularly intelligent.
Alt text: Satirical image from The Onion news website illustrating the concept of problematic philosemitism.
The danger of philosemitism lies in its potential to reinforce stereotypes and create a “good Jew/bad Jew” dichotomy. This can manifest as favoring certain types of Jews over others, such as Orthodox Jews over non-Orthodox, non-Zionist Jews over Zionist Jews, or Jewish Republicans over Jewish Democrats. It judges Jewish people based on narrow categories and preferences rather than recognizing their diversity and individuality.
Christian Zionist movements, particularly some forms of Evangelical Zionism, can also represent a problematic form of philosemitism. While Christian Zionists often strongly support the State of Israel, some do so based on dispensationalist theology. This theology views Jewish people as instruments to bring about the Rapture and the Second Coming of Jesus, seeing their return to Israel as a necessary step in this process. This perspective treats Jewish people as a means to an end, and can also involve proselytizing efforts aimed at converting Jews to Christianity. Furthermore, if these eschatological expectations are not met, it could even lead to scapegoating Jewish people when the anticipated events do not unfold as predicted.
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Are Jewish People Considered White?
The concept of categorizing Jewish people as “white” is a relatively recent phenomenon, particularly in the context of framing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. By falsely portraying this conflict as a racial one, where Israelis are labeled as “white” oppressors, anti-Israel activists draw misleading comparisons to racial inequality in the United States. However, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is fundamentally a conflict between two nationalisms: Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism (Zionism).
The Jewish people are incredibly diverse, encompassing European Ashkenazi Jews, Black Jews from Ethiopia, brown Jews from India, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from North Africa and Arab countries, Persian Jews from Iran, and many other communities around the world. Israel serves as a homeland for all Jewish people, regardless of their background. The very term “Jew” originates from “Judea,” the ancient name for the land of Israel.
Presenting Israel as a “white” oppressor nation distorts the reality of Israel as a multicultural society that guarantees civil rights to all its citizens, irrespective of their origin or background. It also ignores the rich diversity of the Jewish people and the historical realities of antisemitism. Historically, and even today, neo-Nazis and white supremacists do not consider Jews to be white. Throughout much of history, Jewish people in Western societies were often marginalized and discriminated against as a distinct group, regardless of their skin color.
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How Can Jewish People Be Seen as Victims of Discrimination When Many Are Successful?
The assertion that Jewish people cannot be victims of discrimination because of their success is a common antisemitic trope. As renowned Jewish historian Deborah Lipstadt has stated, “the racist punches down, but the antisemite often punches up.” Antisemitism frequently revolves around perceptions of Jewish power and privilege.
The very fact that Jewish people have achieved success in various fields is often twisted by antisemites into evidence of conspiracy and undue influence. The more integrated and accepted Jewish people become in a society, the more they can be falsely portrayed as “not belonging” or wielding excessive power. This makes Jewish communities particularly sensitive to discussions about wealth, power, and influence, as these themes are frequently weaponized in antisemitic rhetoric.
While it is true that in contemporary society, particularly in Western countries, some Jewish individuals hold positions of power in government, lead major corporations, and are well-represented in academia, this reality is often misrepresented. It is crucial to remember that only a few generations ago, Jewish people faced academic quotas, professional restrictions, and other forms of systemic discrimination in these same societies. White supremacists and other antisemites target Jewish people regardless of their socio-economic status; their hatred is directed at Jewish identity itself, not at individual success or failure.
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Does Defining Antisemitism Limit Freedom of Speech?
In countries like the U.S., freedom of speech is constitutionally protected, encompassing even hateful speech that is racist, xenophobic, homophobic, and antisemitic. Therefore, defining speech as antisemitic does not, in itself, legally restrict that speech. However, in contexts where bigotry has consequences, such as determining the motivation behind hate crimes, having a clear definition of antisemitism is crucial. While the First Amendment in the U.S. protects a wide range of expression, it does not protect incitement to violence, defamation, “fighting words,” or credible threats of violence. Understanding what constitutes antisemitism is vital for identifying bias in hate crimes, which are punishable under law.
Furthermore, a working definition of antisemitism is essential for promoting respectful dialogue in public discourse and on social media platforms. The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s (IHRA) Working Definition of Antisemitism, adopted in 2016, serves this purpose. It helps to clarify contemporary forms of antisemitism and, in doing so, actually strengthens the protection of freedom of religion and speech for Jewish people. By providing a clear framework for identifying antisemitism, the IHRA definition can prevent a “chilling effect” where Jewish individuals might feel afraid to openly express their Jewish identity. It also discourages the exclusion of Jewish people from progressive movements simply because of their connection to Israel. A recent AJC survey found that a vast majority of both American Jews (85%) and the general public (84%) consider the statement “Israel has no right to exist” – a core tenet of anti-Zionism – to be antisemitic.
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Is Criticizing Israel Antisemitic?
Unequivocally, criticizing the policies and actions of the State of Israel is not inherently antisemitic. Both Israelis and those outside of Israel have the right to voice their disagreements and concerns. As the only democracy in the Middle East, Israel benefits from and encourages open and free debate. However, it is crucial that criticism focuses specifically on “Israeli policies” or “actions of the Israeli government.” Using precise language is essential to distinguish legitimate critique from attempts to delegitimize Israel’s fundamental right to exist.
Delegitimization, demonization, and double standards are often used as indicators to determine whether criticism of Israel crosses the line into antisemitism.
Demonizing Israel – portraying it as inherently evil or uniquely malicious – is antisemitic. Similarly, blaming Israel for all the violence and conflicts in the Middle East is also a form of antisemitism, as it unfairly singles out Israel and ignores the complex regional dynamics and the actions of other actors. Applying double standards to Israel, holding it to a different and harsher level of scrutiny than other nations, particularly regarding human rights, while ignoring or downplaying egregious human rights abuses in countries like Iran or China, can also be a manifestation of antisemitism.
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When Do Anti-Zionism and Criticisms of Israel Become Antisemitic?
Advocating for a two-state solution that includes a Palestinian state, criticizing specific policies of the Israeli government, and supporting Palestinian rights are not inherently anti-Zionist or antisemitic positions. General opposition to all forms of nationalism, including Jewish nationalism, is also not antisemitic in itself.
However, when the focus shifts to calling for the dismantling of the Jewish state alone, it crosses into antisemitism. The belief that Jewish people, uniquely among all peoples, do not deserve self-determination or that they lack a genuine historical and religious connection to Israel, is discriminatory and antisemitic. This denial singles out Jewish people and their collective rights, which is a core element of antisemitism.
Furthermore, when Jewish individuals or institutions around the world are targeted with verbal or physical harassment or vandalism in response to actions taken by the State of Israel, this is undeniably antisemitic. It holds Jewish people globally responsible for the actions of the Israeli government and punishes them for events in which they have no direct involvement.
Finally, criticisms of Israel that rely on antisemitic tropes about Jewish power or greed, engage in Holocaust denial, or falsely accuse Israelis of being “the new Nazis” are unequivocally antisemitic. These forms of criticism abandon legitimate political discourse and descend into hateful prejudice against Jewish people.
