For a vast majority of the global population, the belief in God is not just a concept but a deeply ingrained reality. To them, the existence of God is self-evident, a fundamental truth that shapes their understanding of the world and their place within it. In fact, for many believers, the question isn’t “why believe?” but rather “how could anyone not believe?”.
Yet, if we look back through the lens of evolutionary history, a fascinating perspective emerges. As psychologist Brett Mercier and his colleagues at the University of California at Irvine point out, our distant ancestors were, in essence, atheists. Belief in God, or any deity, was not part of their cognitive landscape. So, the question resurfaces with renewed intrigue: Why Do People Believe In God? How did humanity transition from a state of non-belief to widespread faith?
To unravel this complex question, evolutionary science often distinguishes between ultimate and proximate causes. An ultimate cause delves into the evolutionary origins of a behavior – how it initially developed and why it persisted over generations. Conversely, a proximate cause examines the immediate triggers and conditions that prompt this evolved behavior in the present. A classic example is bird migration. The ultimate cause is survival advantage: birds migrating to warmer climates with abundant food sources were more likely to survive and reproduce. The proximate cause, however, is the shortening of daylight hours, which acts as a biological cue signaling the time to migrate south.
Religious belief, in its myriad forms, is a near-universal human phenomenon. This ubiquity strongly suggests an underlying evolutionary basis – an ultimate cause that explains its emergence and prevalence across cultures. Simultaneously, the diversity of religious beliefs and the existence of non-believers indicate the influence of proximate causes, the varied factors that shape individual and societal faith. Mercier and his team, in their research, propose a framework of both ultimate and proximate causes to illuminate the enduring question of why people believe in God.
The Evolutionary Roots: Ultimate Causes of Religious Belief
Early humans, anatomically modern for approximately 250,000 years, lived as hunter-gatherers. These societies were characterized by a division of labor where men typically hunted and scavenged for meat, while women gathered plant-based foods. Living in small, nomadic groups of around 100-150 individuals, dictated by the carrying capacity of their environment, these early human societies were significantly larger and more cooperative than those of other primates.
This enhanced cooperation was underpinned by evolved cognitive mechanisms, most notably, a heightened sense of agency. As tool users, humans developed a profound understanding of cause and effect – actions leading to predictable outcomes. “I smash the nut with a rock, and it cracks open.” “I shake the tree, and the apple falls.” This direct experience with agency in the physical world extended into their social interactions.
Humans are not only aware of their own agency but also readily attribute it to others. We interpret actions based on perceived intention. An accidental step on our foot is easily forgiven, but a deliberate stomp demands explanation and apology. This sensitivity to agency often becomes hypersensitive. We tend to over-attribute intention, even when it may not exist. Think about being cut off in traffic – our immediate reaction is often to assume malice, rather than considering the possibility of a simple oversight. We instinctively lean towards intentionality, sometimes overlooking situational factors or limitations that might influence behavior.
This hypersensitive agency detection extends beyond human interactions, leading to the inference of intentionality in natural processes and inanimate objects. Beliefs in spirits inhabiting nature – water sprites, woodland spirits, ghosts, and demons – are ancient and found across cultures. The unpredictability and complexity of the natural world fostered an environment where agency was perceived all around.
Alt text: Sun rays piercing through ancient woodland trees, symbolizing the pervasive belief in animistic spirits within natural environments.
Even in modern, scientifically advanced societies, vestiges of this animistic thinking persist. Have you ever pleaded with your car to start on a cold morning? Or blamed your computer for having a mind of its own when it malfunctions? This tendency to detect agency in inanimate objects, especially in unpredictable or uncontrollable situations, underscores the deeply ingrained nature of this cognitive bias. Animistic thinking, the belief in supernatural agency influencing the world, is a universal human trait. While prevalent in childhood and shaped by cultural norms in adulthood, it formed the bedrock of early spiritual beliefs in hunter-gatherer societies, even before the development of organized religion.
Around 15,000 years ago, a significant shift occurred in human history: the gradual adoption of agriculture. Initially, humans supplemented hunting and gathering with animal domestication and gardening. However, over time, most societies transitioned primarily to farming and herding. Agriculture revolutionized human society by enabling significantly higher population densities compared to hunter-gatherer lifestyles. This, however, came with its own set of challenges.
While small hunter-gatherer groups fostered close-knit communities where social dynamics were manageable through direct relationships and social pressure, the advent of agriculture and subsequent population growth led to larger, more anonymous societies. Living in villages, towns, and eventually cities with thousands or even tens of thousands of people meant interacting daily with strangers. This shift presented a challenge to social cohesion and cooperation.
Here, cultural evolution played a crucial role. Human survival hinges on cooperation. In small groups, social transgressions were readily addressed through community pressure and direct consequences. Cheaters were easily identified and punished, promoting pro-social behavior. However, in anonymous, larger societies, the opportunities for exploitation increased. The lack of direct accountability made it easier to take advantage of others without immediate repercussions from the wider community.
The emergence of organized religion provided a solution to this challenge. The concept of ever-watchful deities, who would punish wrongdoers even in the absence of earthly consequences, arose as a mechanism for social control and moral enforcement. Organized religion, therefore, developed in tandem with the rise of city-states, providing a supernatural framework for maintaining social order in increasingly complex societies.
Proximate Causes: Why Belief Persists and Varies Today
Millennia later, we inhabit a technologically advanced world shaped by scientific understanding, a world where natural phenomena are explained by the laws of physics, not by capricious spirits or deities. Despite this, religious belief in a God or gods who observe and judge our actions remains prevalent. However, religious adherence has also seen a significant decline in many parts of the world over the past century. To understand this contemporary landscape, we need to consider the proximate causes of religious belief.
Mercier and his colleagues categorize these proximate causes into three broad categories: cognitive, motivational, and societal.
Cognitive Factors: Thinking styles play a significant role in belief. Individuals with a more analytical thinking style, who prioritize logic and reason over intuition, are generally less inclined to religious belief. This aligns with observations that higher intelligence is often correlated with agnostic or atheistic viewpoints. Conversely, individuals with high emotional intelligence, adept at understanding and interpreting the emotions and intentions of others, tend to be more religious. This connection highlights the link between the mind-reading abilities that fostered early social cooperation and the development of religious belief systems.
Motivational Factors: Personal needs and circumstances also drive religious belief. Social isolation often correlates with increased religiosity. Faith can provide a sense of connection and community, alleviating feelings of loneliness. Similarly, facing mortality often intensifies religious faith. The adage “there are no atheists in foxholes” reflects the human tendency to seek solace and hope in faith when confronted with danger and death. Experiences of uncontrollability, such as natural disasters or personal crises, can also strengthen religious belief. Believing in a divine plan can offer a sense of order and meaning in chaotic situations, helping individuals regain a sense of control or acceptance.
Another powerful motivator is self-enhancement. In societies where religion is valued, publicly expressing faith can be advantageous. Social pressure and the desire for belonging can lead individuals to profess belief, even if their personal conviction is uncertain. This phenomenon extends to individuals in religious professions who may maintain their roles despite personal doubts, highlighting the complex interplay of faith and social structures.
Societal Factors: The broader societal context significantly influences levels of religious belief. Developed countries generally exhibit lower rates of religious belief compared to underdeveloped nations. Japan, with its high standard of living, has a remarkably low percentage of religious individuals. Western Europe has also experienced a significant secularization, with many countries now considered “post-Christian.”
The United States, however, presents a notable exception, maintaining high levels of religiosity despite its developed status. Mercier and colleagues suggest that the difference lies in social safety nets. Countries like Japan and those in Western Europe offer universal healthcare and robust social security systems, providing a sense of security and stability. In contrast, the more laissez-faire approach in American society leaves individuals with greater uncertainty about their future, potentially making the belief in a benevolent and protective God more appealing.
Even in industrialized societies where traditional organized religion is declining, spirituality in broader terms often persists. Belief in a life force or a divine spirit permeating nature and humanity remains common. As societies become more affluent and equitable, the perceived need for a watchful, interventionist God may diminish. While organized religion might evolve or decline in certain contexts, the fundamental human inclination to perceive agency in the complex and unpredictable world, the very seed of religious belief, may endure.
