The Treaty of Versailles, intended to secure peace after World War I, remains a subject of intense debate regarding its role in paving the way for another global conflict. Even in 1919, some observers questioned whether the treaty would truly prevent future hostilities. John Maynard Keynes, a prominent economist, resigned from the British delegation to Versailles, believing the treaty to be overly harsh and predicting it would lead to disaster in Europe. A French military leader at the time chillingly foresaw the treaty not as peace, but as a mere “armistice for twenty years.”
The aftermath of World War I starkly illustrates how peace agreements, if poorly constructed, can inadvertently lay the groundwork for future wars.
The Ineffectiveness of the League of Nations
Born from the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations was established with 32 member countries. Initially composed largely of World War I victors, it later expanded to include Germany and other defeated nations. Notably, despite President Woodrow Wilson’s strong advocacy, the United States Senate rejected U.S. membership. The core principle of the League was collective security – an attack on one member was considered an attack on all. Member states pledged to avoid resorting to war.
However, when confronted with real-world security threats, the League of Nations proved largely ineffective.
The League’s mechanism for resolving international disputes required unanimous consent before action could be taken. This severely hampered its ability to respond decisively. For instance, when Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, the League was paralyzed due to Japan’s veto power. The League’s inaction demonstrated a critical flaw in its design.
In 1935, Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) further exposed the League’s weakness. Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, in a passionate plea to the League, famously asked, “What have become of the promises made to me?” The League’s response was again minimal, offering little more than condemnation.
This period was characterized by an unrealistic optimism about international cooperation, which ultimately undermined efforts to prevent war. The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, for example, aimed to outlaw war by obligating signatories to resolve disputes peacefully. Yet, this pact proved toothless as nations like Germany, Italy, and Japan disregarded international agreements designed to curb aggression and expansionism. Meanwhile, major powers such as France and the United Kingdom were hesitant to take concrete action to maintain the balance of power.
Weakened and traumatized by World War I, the major powers within the League showed a lack of both capacity and willingness to address growing security threats. The League’s feeble response to blatant acts of aggression inadvertently encouraged further invasions and expansionist policies.
By the time World War II erupted, the League of Nations had become largely irrelevant in international politics. Many historians argue that the absence of the United States crippled the League from its inception. The withdrawal of other key nations – Germany, Italy, and Japan had all exited by 1937 – further eroded the organization’s credibility and authority.
Despite its ultimate failure to prevent World War II, the League of Nations did achieve some successes in areas like global health and arms control. Many of its agencies and ideals were carried forward into its successor organization, the United Nations. However, the fundamental challenges of collective security and effective international cooperation remain relevant even today. The COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, highlighted the ongoing difficulties the United Nations faces in taking decisive action due to disagreements among powerful member states.
The Rise of Hitler and German Resentment
Germany’s path to World War II began at the close of World War I with the signing of the armistice in November 1918. While military leaders on the front lines recognized the war was lost, elements within German society refused to accept defeat.
The “stab-in-the-back” myth began to circulate and gain traction. This false narrative, promoted by conservative and military circles, wrongly blamed Jewish people and left-wing activists for undermining Germany’s war effort. The Weimar Republic, Germany’s newly formed democratic government, was branded by some as the “November criminals” and held responsible for Germany’s defeat in World War I and the subsequent humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles.
Germany then faced a series of severe economic crises. In the early 1920s, hyperinflation gripped the nation. Prices spiraled out of control, causing the German currency to plummet in value. Savings evaporated overnight, and by 1923, the cost of basic necessities like bread became astronomically high, requiring wheelbarrows full of banknotes for simple purchases.
