In the decades following World War II, Jewish communities in America experienced remarkable success and freedoms, a stark contrast to the historical denials faced by their ancestors and counterparts elsewhere. However, a disturbing trend, initially observed in Western Europe, has seen antisemitism resurface in the United States with alarming intensity.
From horrific acts of violence such as the Tree of Life synagogue shooting in Pittsburgh (2018), the Chabad Center shooting in Poway (2019), and the Colleyville synagogue hostage crisis (2022), to the normalization of antisemitic rhetoric within mainstream culture, amplified by figures like rapper Kanye West, basketball star Kyrie Irving, and comedian Dave Chappelle, hatred towards Jewish people is undeniably on the rise in America.
But what exactly is antisemitism, why is it becoming increasingly prevalent now, and what are the underlying reasons for this persistent prejudice against Jews?
To gain a deeper understanding, here are answers to ten crucial questions exploring the nature of Jew-hatred, including its origins, contemporary manifestations, and the complex relationship with Israel.
1. How is Antisemitism Different from Other Forms of Hate?
Antisemitism stands apart as the oldest form of hatred, with roots tracing back millennia to Christian religious doctrines. Over centuries, antisemitism has transformed into various forms, both overt and subtle, yet consistently damaging to Jewish people. This adaptability is a defining characteristic. Unlike other forms of racism that often demean victims as inferior, antisemitism uniquely operates by also portraying Jews as powerful and manipulative.
Alt text: Solidarity march in New York City against antisemitism, showcasing community support for Jewish people.
Beyond depicting Jews as unworthy, unclean, and greedy, antisemitism accuses them of believing in their own superiority and hindering opportunities for others. This is fueled by conspiracy theories alleging Jewish control over media, banks, and governments, alongside harmful stereotypes about “Jewish power” or the “Jewish lobby.” This particular strain of antisemitism, which attacks Jews for perceived power, resonates strongly within contemporary anti-racism movements that aim to dismantle traditional power structures.
Both white supremacist and Black supremacist groups, including followers of Louis Farrakhan’s Nation of Islam, perceive Jews as attempting to usurp their position as the superior race. White supremacists pose the most lethal threat. Black supremacist groups, such as the Black Hebrew Israelites, assert that they are the true Jews, God’s chosen people from the Bible, while claiming that “White” Jews are imposters. This ideology gained prominence through antisemitic statements made by rapper Kanye West, who claimed in 2022 that “When I say Jew, I mean the 12 lost tribes of Judah, the blood of Christ, who the people known as the race Black really are. This is who our people are.”
Another common antisemitic trope involves portraying Jews as oppressors. Anti-Zionists, for instance, accuse Jews collectively of ethnic cleansing for not granting Palestinians the right to return to Israel. They misrepresent the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a racial dispute rather than a geopolitical or nationalist one. The platform of anti-racism is sometimes exploited by antisemites to mask their prejudice by denying self-determination and equal rights to Jews while advocating for other minority groups.
The denial of the Jewish people’s right to self-determination, or the negation of their religious and historical connection to Israel, is a form of discrimination unique to antisemitism.
2. What Are the Historical Origins of Antisemitism?
Throughout history, antisemitism has manifested in diverse forms, consistently blaming individual Jews for the supposed wrongdoings of Jews as a collective. While pre-Christian Greco-Roman persecutions existed, anti-Jewish sentiment largely originated from a Christian perspective, rooted in interpretations of Christian doctrine and early Church Fathers’ teachings of contempt for Jews. This included the accusation of “deicide,” blaming Jews for the death of Jesus, thus holding all Jews responsible for this act.
Alt text: Medieval illustration depicting blood libel, a false accusation against Jews of using Christian blood.
In the Medieval era, this prejudice served to scapegoat Jews for various misfortunes. They were falsely accused of kidnapping and murdering Christian children, known as the blood libel, and of spreading disease through poisoning wells. As Jews began to assimilate into European society and access professions and public roles previously denied to them, conspiracy theories about Jewish power began to spread.
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, antisemitism has also targeted the modern Jewish collective: the Jewish state. No other nation has faced comparable threats to its existence or endured such relentless demonization and vilification. Contemporary antisemitism draws from all these historical layers and concepts.
3. How Has Antisemitism Changed Over Time?
Antisemitic tropes and conspiracy theories have constantly adapted and evolved throughout history, reflecting contemporary events and social contexts. As noted earlier, early anti-Jewish sentiment was religiously based, centered on the “deicide” charge. In medieval times, the blood libel and the accusation of poisoning wells emerged. Later, as Jews integrated into European society, conspiracies about Jewish power proliferated, exemplified by the fabricated Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fraudulent document attributed to the Russian secret police in the early 20th century, which continues to be circulated today as a justification for antisemitism.
With the rise of eugenics and its pseudo-scientific racial hierarchy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, antisemitism took on a racial dimension, particularly in Adolf Hitler’s Nazi propaganda. Hitler’s hierarchy placed Aryans at the top and Jews at the bottom, blaming them for Germany’s defeat in World War I. This culminated in the Holocaust, the systematic murder of six million Jews.
The creation of Israel brought forth another form of antisemitism targeting the Jewish state. The denial of Jewish self-determination and the negation of their historical connection to Israel became central themes, fueled by the same underlying motives that have driven antisemitism for centuries.
All these historical expressions of antisemitism persist today, in societies with and without Jewish populations, online and in textbooks across the Arab world, and increasingly within mainstream discourse. The ever-changing nature of antisemitism remains a key characteristic.
4. Is Antisemitism a Problem of the Far-Right or the Far-Left?
It originates from both, and other sources as well. It is crucial to unequivocally condemn antisemitism from all sources, as they often reinforce each other, contributing to its current global resurgence.
A significant threat comes from the far-right. This form of antisemitism is rooted in white supremacist ideologies that view Jews as the primary enemy seeking to displace the white race. In fact, antisemitism is a core tenet of white supremacist worldviews.
The online manifesto of the shooter in the Pittsburgh Tree of Life Synagogue attack revealed that white supremacists consider Jews as non-white. This attack became the deadliest antisemitic incident in American history. A similar tragedy was narrowly averted in Halle, Germany, in 2019 when a far-right gunman attempted to attack a Yom Kippur service but was thwarted by a locked door.
Paradoxically, the far-left also sometimes views Jews as white supremacists. Within far-left movements advocating for dismantling power structures, Jews are targeted with antisemitic tropes alleging excessive Jewish power and privilege.
Among European intellectuals, antisemitism has intertwined with anti-American sentiments, reminiscent of the Soviet Union where Jews were accused of supporting American imperialism. The Soviet Union spearheaded the 1975 effort to equate Zionism with racism, drawing on the fabricated Protocols of the Elders of Zion and distorting Jewish religious concepts to claim inherent racial superiority. This deliberately misinterpreted Judaism’s concept of “chosen people,” which in fact denotes special religious and social responsibilities.
In contemporary Europe, the United States is often viewed with the same suspicion as “powerful Jews.”
The rise of identity politics has also fueled antisemitism on the left, fostering an “us vs. them” mentality that stifles nuanced debate. Consequently, supporters of Zionism are increasingly excluded from progressive spaces advocating for social justice, even on issues unrelated to Israel.
Far-left antisemitism also manifests as opposition to Israel’s right to exist or by holding all Jews accountable for Israel’s actions. Antisemitic violence and rhetoric have erupted during some pro-Palestinian/anti-Israel protests. In the U.S. Congress, some far-left Democrats have accused Israel of apartheid. U.S. Representative Ilhan Omar, for example, has stated that “Israel has hypnotized the world” and accused politicians supporting Israel of dual loyalty to a foreign country – a classic antisemitic trope.
In Britain, an antisemitic scandal engulfed the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn’s leadership, demonstrating how hostility towards Zionism can unleash or legitimize widespread Jew-hatred within a political movement.
Religious extremists, including those acting in the name of Islam, also propagate antisemitism. In fact, every fatal attack against Jews in Europe in recent years, except for Halle, Germany, has been perpetrated by individuals claiming to act in the name of Islam. Religious extremism also motivates groups like Iran, Hezbollah, and Hamas in their calls to eliminate Israel, making some far-left support for these groups deeply concerning.
These diverse sources of antisemitism coexist and contribute to the overall problem.
5. What is Philosemitism and Why Can It Be Problematic?
Even seemingly positive or disproportionate attention on Jews can mask underlying prejudice or negative intent.
Philosemitism is defined as a special interest in, respect for, or admiration of Jewish people, Jewish history, or even Jewish stereotypes. This can be problematic. For example, a philosemite might prefer hiring Jewish professionals based on a belief that Jews are inherently better at managing money. As journalist Yair Rosenberg notes, “At worst, given the right impetus, the coin of philo-Semitic antisemitism can easily be flipped, and all those formerly positive stereotypes can be weaponized against Jews.”
Philosemitism is also problematic when it creates a “good Jew-bad Jew” dichotomy, such as favoring Orthodox Jews over non-Orthodox, non-Zionist Jews over Zionist Jews, or Jewish Republicans over Jewish Democrats.
Christian Evangelical Zionism can also be a problematic form of philosemitism. While Christian Zionists strongly support Israel, some hold pre-millennial dispensationalist beliefs. They support Jewish people returning to Israel because they believe it will trigger the Rapture and the Second Coming of Jesus. This views Jews as a means to an end and also as targets for conversion. It can even pave the way for scapegoating Jews if the anticipated Rapture does not occur.
6. Are Jewish People Considered White?
The concept of Jews as “white” is a recent development in framing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. By falsely portraying it as a racial conflict with Israelis as “white,” anti-Israel activists draw inaccurate parallels to racial inequality in the U.S. However, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is fundamentally a conflict between two nationalisms: Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism (Zionism).
Alt text: Diverse Jewish Israelis, highlighting the multicultural nature of Judaism and Israel.
Jews are a diverse group, including European Ashkenazi Jews, Black Jews from Ethiopia, brown Jews from India, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from North Africa and Arab countries, Persian Jews from Iran, and many more. Israel serves as a homeland for all Jews. The very term “Jew” originates from “Judea,” the ancient name for Israel.
Depicting Israel as a “white” oppressor distorts the reality of a multicultural nation that guarantees equal civil rights to all citizens, regardless of background. It also misrepresents the diversity of the Jewish people and the historical reality of antisemitism. Historically, Jews were not considered white through the late 19th and early 20th centuries and are still not considered white by neo-Nazis and white supremacists today.
7. How Can Jews Be Seen as Discriminated Against if Many Are Successful?
Jewish historian Deborah Lipstadt famously states that “the racist punches down, but the antisemite often punches up.” A defining aspect of antisemitism is its connection to perceptions of power and privilege.
It is almost as if increased Jewish integration into society paradoxically makes them stand out as “not belonging,” making Jews particularly sensitive to accusations related to wealth and power.
While it is true that in 2021, some Jews hold influential positions in government, corporations, and academia, this reality is recent. Just two generations ago, Jews faced academic quotas and various forms of discrimination. For white supremacists, Jewish success or poverty is irrelevant; they are targeted simply for being Jewish.
8. Does Defining Antisemitism Restrict Freedom of Speech?
In the U.S., the First Amendment protects even hateful speech, including racist, xenophobic, homophobic, and antisemitic expressions. Therefore, classifying speech as antisemitic does not in itself restrict it legally. However, understanding antisemitism is crucial for contexts where bigotry has consequences, such as determining motivations in hate crimes. While the First Amendment has limits, it does not protect incitement, defamation, fighting words, or credible threats of violence. Defining antisemitism, like through the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s (IHRA) Working Definition of Antisemitism, helps in identifying bias in hate crimes, which are punishable under law.
Furthermore, the IHRA definition promotes constructive public discourse and on social media. By clarifying modern forms of antisemitism, it safeguards First Amendment guarantees of freedom of religion and speech. It prevents a “chilling effect” that might otherwise deter Jewish individuals from openly identifying as Jewish and discourages progressive spaces from excluding Jews due to their connection to Israel. AJC’s State of Antisemitism in America 2023 Report found that the vast majority of both American Jews and the general public consider the statement “Israel has no right to exist” – a core tenet of anti-Zionism – to be antisemitic.
9. Is Criticizing Israel Antisemitic?
Absolutely not. Individuals both within and outside Israel have every right to disagree with and critique Israeli policies and actions. As the only democracy in the Middle East, Israel encourages open and free debate. However, it is essential that criticism specifically targets “Israeli policies” or “actions of Israel’s army.” Precise language distinguishes legitimate critique from attempts to delegitimize Israel’s fundamental right to exist.
Delegitimization, demonization, and double standards serve as indicators of when criticism crosses the line into antisemitism.
Demonizing Israel – portraying it as inherently evil – or blaming it for all violence in the Middle East is antisemitic. Similarly, applying double standards by condemning Israel for human rights issues while ignoring or downplaying severe abuses in nations like Iran and China can also be a form of antisemitism.
10. When Do Anti-Zionism and Criticisms of Israel Become Antisemitic?
Advocating for a two-state solution including a Palestinian state, criticizing Israeli government policies, and supporting Palestinian rights are not inherently anti-Zionist or antisemitic. Opposing all forms of nationalism, including Jewish nationalism, is also not antisemitic in itself.
However, calling for the elimination of the Jewish state specifically crosses into antisemitism. Denying the Jewish people’s right to self-determination, or their historical and religious connection to Israel, singles out Jews for discrimination, which is the essence of antisemitism.
When Jews globally are harassed or Jewish institutions are vandalized in response to actions by the State of Israel, this is antisemitism.
Criticisms of Israel that employ antisemitic tropes about Jewish power or greed, engage in Holocaust denial, or accuse Israelis of being “new Nazis” also cross the line into antisemitism.
