The impeachment of President Andrew Johnson in 1868 stands as a pivotal moment in United States history, deeply entwined with the tumultuous era of Reconstruction following the Civil War. This unprecedented event, the first presidential impeachment trial in American history, unfolded against a backdrop of intense political conflict between Johnson and the Republican-controlled Congress. At the heart of the matter were fundamental disagreements about how to rebuild the nation after the war, particularly concerning the rights of newly freed slaves and the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches of government. Understanding why Andrew Johnson was impeached requires delving into the complex web of political tensions, constitutional interpretations, and personal clashes that defined this dramatic chapter in American political history.
Andrew Johnson’s path to the presidency was itself remarkable. Born into poverty in North Carolina in 1808, he rose through self-education and sheer determination. Apprenticed as a tailor in his youth, Johnson never attended formal schooling, yet he cultivated a sharp intellect and formidable oratory skills. Moving to Tennessee as a young man, he settled in Greeneville and married Eliza McCardle, who played a significant role in his self-improvement and political advancement.
Johnson’s political career began in local Greeneville politics, progressing through the Tennessee state legislature and eventually to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843. His humble origins and populist appeal resonated with working-class citizens, though they often put him at odds with the established elite. Despite setbacks like gerrymandering that temporarily ousted him from office, Johnson’s resilience and political acumen propelled him to become governor of Tennessee and later a U.S. Senator in 1857.
The Road to Impeachment: Conflict with Congress
Johnson’s independent streak became strikingly evident as the nation approached the Civil War. Following Abraham Lincoln’s election in 1860 and the secession of Southern states, Johnson, a Southern Democrat, remained steadfastly loyal to the Union. This loyalty led to his appointment as military governor of Tennessee in 1862. In 1864, seeking to broaden his appeal and unite the nation, Lincoln selected Johnson as his running mate, and Johnson became Vice President in March 1865. Just weeks later, Lincoln’s assassination thrust Johnson into the presidency at a critical juncture in American history.
Initially, there was optimism surrounding Johnson’s presidency, even among the Radical Republicans who would later spearhead his impeachment. However, this brief period of goodwill quickly dissolved as Johnson’s Reconstruction policies became clear. He advocated for a lenient approach towards the defeated South, including pardoning Confederate leaders and opposing political rights for formerly enslaved people. This stance directly clashed with the Radical Republicans in Congress who sought to ensure Black civil rights and fundamentally reshape Southern society.
The relationship between Johnson and Congress deteriorated rapidly. Johnson’s veto of the Freedmen’s Bureau bill in February 1866 marked a decisive break. In response, Congress passed the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution, aimed at guaranteeing civil and voting rights for African Americans, directly countering Johnson’s more lenient approach. Further escalating the conflict, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in March 1867, over Johnson’s veto. This act, which became central to the impeachment charges, restricted the president’s power to remove cabinet members without Senate approval, a clear attempt to limit Johnson’s authority and protect officials like Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, a Lincoln appointee and ally of the Radical Republicans.
The Firing of Stanton: The Spark for Impeachment
While tensions had been simmering for years, the event that triggered the impeachment proceedings was Johnson’s dismissal of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Stanton was a vocal opponent of Johnson’s Reconstruction policies and a key figure for the Radical Republicans. Johnson sought to replace him, hoping to appoint Ulysses S. Grant, believing Grant would be more aligned with his views.
In August 1867, while Congress was in recess, Johnson suspended Stanton and appointed Grant as interim Secretary of War. However, when the Senate reconvened, they refused to approve Stanton’s suspension, and Grant, wary of political repercussions, resigned and Stanton resumed his position. Undeterred, Johnson then fired Stanton outright in February 1868 and nominated Lorenzo Thomas as interim Secretary. Stanton responded by having Thomas arrested for illegally attempting to assume the office.
This defiance of the Tenure of Office Act was seen by many in Congress as a direct challenge to their authority and a violation of the law. It provided the Radical Republicans with the justification they needed to initiate impeachment proceedings. The House of Representatives, led by figures like Thaddeus Stevens, quickly moved to draft articles of impeachment.
Articles of Impeachment: Detailing the Charges
The House swiftly drafted and approved eleven articles of impeachment against President Johnson. While some articles were considered minor or even petty, the core charges revolved around Johnson’s alleged violation of the Tenure of Office Act and his attempts to undermine the authority of Congress.
- Article 1: Accused Johnson of unlawfully ordering the removal of Edwin M. Stanton, intending to violate the Tenure of Office Act.
- Articles 2, 3, and 8: Alleged that Johnson’s appointment of Lorenzo Thomas as Secretary of War ad interim without Senate approval was a further violation of the Constitution and the Tenure of Office Act.
- Articles 4-7: Accused Johnson of conspiring with Thomas to remove Stanton, framing this as a “high crime in office” and illegally depriving Stanton of his rightful position.
- Article 9: Charged Johnson with undermining the command structure of the military by directly issuing orders to a general, bypassing the General of the Army and Secretary Stanton.
- Article 10: Focused on Johnson’s public speeches, accusing him of delivering “intemperate, inflammatory, and scandalous harangues” intended to disgrace Congress. This article reflected the deep animosity between Johnson and the legislative branch.
- Article 11: Accused Johnson of declaring that the 39th Congress was unconstitutional, thereby undermining its legislative power and his own oath to faithfully execute the laws.
These articles, while varied in their specifics, collectively painted a picture of a president who was defying the will of Congress, violating federal law, and undermining the constitutional order. The stage was set for a historic Senate trial.
The Senate Trial: A Nation on Edge
The impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson commenced in the Senate on March 5, 1868, with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding. The trial became a national spectacle, drawing immense public and media attention. Johnson himself, on the advice of his legal team, did not appear at the trial but engaged with the press throughout the proceedings.
Leading Johnson’s defense was a team of prominent lawyers, including former Attorney General Henry Stanbery and William M. Evarts. Their strategy was multifaceted. They argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and that Johnson’s actions did not actually violate it, as Stanton had been appointed by Lincoln, not Johnson himself. They further contended that even if the act was constitutional, Johnson’s actions were based on a good-faith interpretation of the law and not criminal intent, arguing that impeachment required “high crimes and misdemeanors,” not simply policy disagreements. The defense emphasized that Johnson was seeking to test the constitutionality of the Act, a right they argued a president possessed. They also downplayed the significance of appointing Thomas, stating it was a temporary measure to ensure the War Department remained operational.
The trial involved the testimony of numerous witnesses for both the prosecution and defense and became a platform for powerful oratory. The Senate chamber was packed with spectators, and tickets to the proceedings were highly sought after, reflecting the immense public interest in the outcome.
Acquittal and Aftermath: A Narrow Escape
In a dramatic climax on May 16, 1868, the Senate voted on three of the eleven articles of impeachment, considered to be the strongest by the House Managers. On Article 11, the vote was 35 senators in favor of conviction and 19 for acquittal. While a majority voted to convict, it fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for removal from office. Similar votes on Articles 2 and 3 ten days later yielded the same result.
President Johnson was acquitted. Crucially, seven Republican senators, known as the “Republican Recusants,” broke party ranks to vote for acquittal. Their motivations were complex, but a key factor was concern about setting a dangerous precedent for using impeachment as a political tool against a president with whom Congress disagreed. Senator James Grimes of Iowa, one of the Recusants, famously stated his decision was based on not wanting to “destroy the harmonious working of the Constitution.”
Why was Andrew Johnson acquitted? Several factors contributed to this outcome:
- The High Bar for Impeachment: The Constitution sets a high bar for impeachment – “high crimes and misdemeanors.” Many senators, including some Republicans, were not convinced that Johnson’s actions, even if they were considered politically unwise or legally questionable, met this threshold.
- Concerns about Presidential Power: There was a fear that convicting Johnson on what some viewed as politically motivated charges would weaken the presidency and disrupt the balance of power between the branches of government.
- Doubt about the Tenure of Office Act: The constitutionality of the Tenure of Office Act was itself questionable, and some senators may have been reluctant to convict a president for violating a law they believed to be unconstitutional or of dubious legality.
- Political Calculations: Some Republicans may have also considered the political ramifications of removing Johnson and elevating the radical Republican President Pro Tempore of the Senate, Benjamin Wade, to the presidency.
Despite surviving impeachment, Johnson’s political power was significantly diminished. He served out the remainder of his term, leaving office in March 1869. In a remarkable turn of events, Johnson was later elected to the Senate in 1874, returning to the very chamber where he had faced impeachment. He served briefly before his death in July 1875.
The impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson remains a landmark event in American history. It tested the limits of presidential power, the scope of impeachment, and the delicate balance between the executive and legislative branches. While Johnson was acquitted, the impeachment process itself underscored the gravity of the charges and the deep political divisions of the Reconstruction era. The question of why Andrew Johnson was impeached serves as a crucial reminder of the enduring tensions inherent in American democracy and the ongoing struggle to define and protect the principles of constitutional government.
