Napoleon Bonaparte, a figure of immense ambition and military genius, had by the early 19th century, redrawn the map of Europe. Following his ascent to power in 1799, his Grande Armée secured victory after victory, bringing much of the continent under French sway. Territories like Belgium, Holland, and parts of Italy, Croatia, and Germany were annexed, while nations such as Switzerland, Poland, and various German states became French dependencies. Even Spain, though resisting with guerilla warfare, and powerful nations like Austria, Prussia, and Russia were, to varying degrees, under Napoleon’s influence. Only Great Britain, protected by its naval might, remained defiantly outside his reach.
To cripple Britain, Napoleon implemented the Continental System in 1806, an embargo designed to economically isolate the island nation. However, by 1810, Tsar Alexander I of Russia ceased to fully comply with this system. The embargo was damaging Russian trade and devaluing the ruble. Alexander also imposed tariffs on French luxury goods and rejected Napoleon’s diplomatic overtures, including a marriage proposal to one of his sisters.
Exacerbating these tensions was the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807. Although formed from Prussian territories, not Russian, Tsar Alexander viewed it with suspicion. He feared it would ignite Polish nationalism, a concern highlighted by historian D.M.G. Sutherland. This Franco-Polish affinity was a long-standing element in European geopolitics.
Despite these growing frictions, Napoleon initially considered Russia a natural ally, believing there were no inherent territorial disputes between them. However, he grew increasingly frustrated with Alexander’s defiance and perceived wavering allegiance. Napoleon, determined to assert his dominance and compel Alexander back into his sphere of influence, resolved to teach the Tsar a decisive lesson. In 1812, he assembled a colossal army, drawing soldiers from across his vast European empire. This Grande Armée, a force unparalleled in its diversity since the Crusades, crossed the Niemen River into Russia on June 24th.
Estimates vary, but it’s believed that between 450,000 and 650,000 soldiers of the Grande Armée marched into Russia, facing a Russian force of approximately 200,000. To put this scale in perspective, Sheperd Paine, president of the Napoleonic Historical Society, noted that George Washington’s Continental Army during the American Revolution rarely exceeded 15,000 men.
Napoleon’s strategy was predicated on a swift victory, forcing Alexander to negotiate and reaffirm his allegiance. However, the Russian army adopted a strategy of retreat, allowing the Grande Armée to capture Vilna on June 27th with minimal resistance. This initial success was quickly overshadowed by ominous events. A severe electrical storm brought freezing rain, hail, and sleet, causing significant losses in men and horses on the very first night. Compounding these natural setbacks, soldiers of the Grande Armée began deserting, driven by hunger and the lure of plunder, even in these early stages of the campaign.
Despite these troubling signs, Napoleon remained outwardly confident. Reportedly declaring to his advisors his intention to “finish off these barbarians of the North,” he envisioned pushing Russia back into its “ice,” ensuring they would not interfere in European affairs for decades to come.
As the invasion progressed, the Russian army continued its strategic retreat. In late July, Vitebsk was abandoned, with the Russians destroying military supplies and infrastructure as they withdrew. In mid-August, Smolensk suffered the same fate, torched by the retreating Russian forces. Adding to the French army’s woes, Russian peasants employed “scorched earth” tactics, burning crops to deny the invaders sustenance. Historian David A. Bell of Princeton University emphasizes the critical impact of this strategy in depriving the Grande Armée of essential supplies.
Beyond the strategic challenges, the Grande Armée faced environmental hardships. The summer heat became oppressive, and disease spread rapidly through the ranks. Typhus and dysentery, carried by insects and contaminated water, decimated Napoleon’s troops, further weakening his forces even before major battles.
Heavy fighting did occur, notably around Smolensk, resulting in thousands of casualties. However, the decisive confrontation did not come until September 7th at the Battle of Borodino, a mere 75 miles from Moscow. This brutal day of combat saw intense artillery barrages and relentless charges and counter-charges. The carnage was immense, with estimated casualties reaching at least 70,000 on both sides. Despite the heavy losses inflicted on the Russians, they chose to withdraw after the battle, leaving the path to Moscow undefended.
On September 14th, the Grande Armée entered Moscow, only to find the ancient capital largely deserted and soon engulfed in flames. Most Muscovites had fled, leaving behind alcohol but scarce food supplies. French troops engaged in looting and drinking as Napoleon waited for Tsar Alexander to sue for peace. However, no offer of surrender arrived. As the first snow flurries began to fall, Napoleon, realizing the impossibility of sustaining his army through a Russian winter in a ruined city, ordered the retreat from Moscow on October 19th.
By this point, Napoleon’s army had already dwindled to around 100,000 men due to combat losses, disease, desertion, and prisoners. Initially, Napoleon planned a retreat southwards, but the resurgent Russian army blocked this route, forcing the Grande Armée to retrace its steps along the already devastated road to Smolensk. Supplies along this route had been completely exhausted, and even the reserves at Smolensk had been consumed by earlier stragglers. Horses died in vast numbers, and the retreating army faced constant harassment from Russian forces on its flanks and rear.
The situation deteriorated further with the onset of an exceptionally early and harsh Russian winter. Blizzards, sub-zero temperatures, and deep snow compounded the army’s suffering. Thousands perished from exposure each night. Horrific accounts emerged of soldiers seeking refuge inside the carcasses of dead animals or using frozen corpses for insulation. As Paine described it, “Things got bad very quickly. It was a constant attrition.”
In late November, the Grande Armée narrowly avoided complete destruction during the crossing of the icy Berezina River, but at a terrible cost, abandoning thousands of wounded. After the Berezina, the retreat became a desperate scramble for survival. On December 5th, Napoleon abandoned his army, leaving command to Joachim Murat, and raced back to Paris amidst rumors of a coup. On December 14th, the remnants of the Grande Armée’s rear guard staggered back across the Niemen River, marking the catastrophic end of the invasion.
Russia’s victory emboldened Napoleon’s enemies. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden rejoined Great Britain and Russia in a renewed coalition against France. Although Napoleon raised another large army, it lacked the experience and cavalry of his earlier forces. Despite initial victories, Napoleon suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813.
By March 1814, Paris fell, and Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba. His brief return to power in 1815 ended with defeat at Waterloo. As historian Bell aptly noted, invading Russia has historically proven disastrous, citing examples from Charles XII to Hitler. Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, driven by a complex mix of political ambition, economic strategy, and a miscalculation of Russian resolve and resilience, stands as a stark historical example of overreach and the devastating consequences of underestimating one’s adversary and the power of environmental factors.
