The year 1969 remains etched in human history as the year we first set foot on the Moon. Neil Armstrong’s “one small step” was a giant leap for mankind, marking the incredible success of the Apollo 11 mission. This monumental achievement, a testament to human ingenuity, engineering prowess, and scientific dedication, captivated the world. Following Apollo 11, there were six more lunar missions, five of which successfully landed, resulting in twelve individuals walking on the lunar surface. Yet, after the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, crewed lunar missions abruptly ceased. Despite the initial flurry of activity and groundbreaking discoveries, humans have not returned to the Moon since. The question then arises: why haven’t we gone back to the Moon?
The most significant factor behind this lunar hiatus is, perhaps unsurprisingly, financial constraints. The Apollo program, while achieving its ambitious goal, was extraordinarily expensive. The sheer cost of reaching the Moon, in an ironic twist of fate, proved to be astronomically high.
Space Exploration Beyond the Moon: Missions Since Apollo
While human footprints have been absent from the lunar soil for decades, space exploration has continued and evolved. Crewed missions to space have become more routine, albeit in Earth’s orbit.
Skylab (1973-1974): America’s First Space Station
Skylab, NASA’s pioneering space station, operated from May 1973 to February 1974. This orbital workshop served as a research hub, housing an observatory and facilitating numerous experiments across various scientific disciplines. However, further development and utilization of Skylab faced setbacks due to delays in the Space Shuttle program. Ultimately, preventing Skylab’s orbital decay, the gradual descent towards Earth, proved impossible.
Space Shuttle (1981-2011): The Reusable Spacecraft
The advent of NASA’s Space Shuttle in 1981 marked a revolution in space travel. As the first reusable spacecraft, the Shuttle enabled the deployment and retrieval of satellites. This crewed vehicle played a crucial role in satellite maintenance, allowing astronauts to repair and redeploy damaged satellites. Furthermore, the Space Shuttle was instrumental in the construction of the International Space Station (ISS).
Mir Space Station (1986-2001): A Blueprint for Continuous Habitation
Astronaut Shannon Lucid conducting experiments aboard the Mir Space Station, highlighting international collaboration in space research.
Russia’s Mir space station, operational from 1986 to 2001, holds the distinction of being the first continuously inhabited research station in orbit. Mir facilitated a wide array of experiments and laid the groundwork for the International Space Station, demonstrating the feasibility and benefits of long-term human presence in space.
International Space Station (ISS) (1998-Present): Global Collaboration in Low Earth Orbit
The International Space Station (ISS), a joint endeavor involving the United States, Russia, Japan, Europe, and Canada, is a continuously inhabited artificial satellite orbiting Earth. Astronauts on board the ISS conduct diverse experiments and reside on the station for approximately six-month periods, furthering scientific knowledge and international cooperation in space.
Apollo 17: The Last Lunar Mission
The last time humans walked on the Moon was during the Apollo 17 mission, which took place from December 7th to 19th, 1972. This 12-day mission achieved several milestones, including the longest spacewalk, the longest lunar landing duration, and the largest collection of lunar samples brought back to Earth.
The Apollo 17 crew comprised Harrison H. Schmitt, a geologist serving as the lunar module pilot; Ronald E. Evans, the command module pilot; and Eugene Cernan, the mission commander. Notably, Apollo 17 was unique among Apollo missions as it did not include any astronauts with prior test pilot experience. Following the cancellation of Apollo 18, for which Schmitt was originally slated, the scientific community advocated for his inclusion in Apollo 17, emphasizing the value of a geologist on a lunar mission.
During the Apollo 17 mission, scientist-astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt is pictured collecting lunar rake samples at Station 1, showcasing the scientific objectives of the Apollo program.
Eugene Cernan holds the distinction of being the last person to leave the lunar surface, making him the most recent human to have stood on the Moon. As he ascended into the lunar module, Cernan delivered a poignant message:
“…I’m on the surface; and, as I take man’s last step from the surface, back home for some time to come – but we believe not too long into the future – I’d like to just [say] what I believe history will record. That America’s challenge of today has forged man’s destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17.”
While crewed lunar missions ceased, lunar research and space exploration continued. Furthermore, plans for future lunar journeys are underway. NASA’s Artemis Program aims to return humans to the Moon, targeting a return by the mid-2020s and establishing a sustained human presence to enable regular lunar visits.
The End of the Space Race and Shifting Priorities
President John F. Kennedy’s iconic 1962 “We Choose to go to the Moon” speech at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas, ignited the race to land humans on the Moon. Kennedy’s powerful commitment was to achieve a human lunar landing before the end of the 1960s:
“And this will be done in the decade of the 60s. It may be done while some of you are still here at school at this college and university. It will be done during the term of office of some of the people who sit here on this platform. But it will be done. And it will be done before the end of this decade.”
With the successful Moon landing in 1969, Kennedy’s ambitious objective was realized, and his deadline met. However, this triumph led to a paradox. Having achieved its primary political goal – winning the space race against the Soviet Union – NASA faced substantial budget reductions, rendering the continuation of the Apollo program unsustainable. Although twenty Apollo missions were initially planned, the perceived urgency for lunar missions diminished after the initial landing, and the final three missions were cancelled.
The US government’s significant investment in the Apollo program was largely driven by the political imperatives of the space race. Once this geopolitical objective was accomplished, the focus shifted away from lunar exploration. As former NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine articulated, the space race was:
“This was a contest of political ideologies. It was a contest of economic ideologies. It was a contest of technological prowess. And in this great contest of great powers the United States of America was determined to win.”
The Apollo missions were immensely expensive, escalating from an initial government estimate of $7 billion to a final cost of $20 billion. Public support for the Apollo program also waned. The missions unfolded against a backdrop of social unrest in the US, and the considerable expenditure on space travel became a source of public debate and dissent. Moreover, the thawing of the Cold War and the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) led to significant reductions in missile production, impacting the very technology underpinning space travel.
Future lunar missions are again being driven by financial considerations, albeit with a different approach. While the Apollo missions involved short stays on the Moon, 21st-century lunar endeavors envision establishing lunar bases and utilizing lunar resources. Bridenstine emphasized this shift, stating that the future of lunar travel is centered on establishing a sustained presence on the Moon:
“This time when we go to the Moon we’re going to stay. That’s what we’re looking to do.”
In conclusion, the cessation of crewed missions to the Moon after Apollo 17 was primarily due to a confluence of factors: the achievement of the initial political objectives of the space race, substantial budget cuts, diminishing public support, and shifting national priorities. However, with renewed interest and evolving technological capabilities, humanity is poised to return to the Moon, this time with a long-term vision of sustained lunar presence and expanded space exploration.
